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I have developed two theories of creativity: The Investment Theory of Creativity and the Propulsion Theory of Creative Contributions.
The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity is a comprehensive scholarly handbook on creativity from the most respected psychologists, researchers, and educators. This handbook serves as a thorough introduction to the field of creativity and as an invaluable reference and current source of important information. Advances in Creativity and Gifted Education (ADVA) is the first internationally. Sternberg (Eds.), Creative Intelligence in the 21st Century, 3–20. The Routledge handbook of the bioarchaeology of human conflict.
Investment Theory of Creativity
The investment theory of creativity, proposed in collaboration with Todd Lubart, holds that creativity is in large part a decision. In particular, it is a decision to buy low and sell high in the world of ideas. Creative people, like good investors, generate ideas that, at the time are viewed as novel and perhaps slightly ridiculous. The creative individuals are metaphorically “buying low.“ Then, once their ideas have gained some acceptance, the creative individuals “sell high,“ reaping the profits of their good idea and moving on to the next unpopular idea.
Creative individuals, by their nature, tend to defy the crowd. They resist merely thinking or doing what others are thinking or doing. Rather, they tend to go off in their own direction, seeking to propose ideas that are both novel and useful in some way. The greatest obstacle to creativity, therefore, often is not exactly strictures from others, but rather the limitations one places on one’s own thinking. Such limitations, however, may derive from processes of enculturation and socialization, so that it often is not clear whether restrictions on creativity are internal or, down the line, externally imposed.
Creativity is a decision in the same way investing is. People are not born creative or uncreative. Rather, they develop a set of attitudes toward life that characterize those who are willing to go their own way. Examples of such attitudes toward life are willingness to (a) redefine problems in novel ways, (b) take sensible risks, (c) “sell” ideas that others might not initially accept, (d) persevere in the face of obstacles, and (e) examine whether their own preconceptions are interfering with their creative process. Such attitudes are teachable and can be ingrained in students through instruction that encourages students to think for themselves.
Creativity comprises several different aspects: (a) abilities, (b) knowledge, (c) styles of thinking, (d) personality attributes, (e) motivation, and especially intrinsic motivation, and (f) environment. A person can have the creative ability that would allow for creativity, for example, but without a willingness to take sensible risks or an environment that provides at least minimal support for creativity, that individual’s potential creativity may be suppressed. It is thus crucially important, especially in schools, to provide an environment that allows creativity to flourish—not just in word, but also in deed. At the same time, an individual can have a creative attitude but without the skills of creativity—such as looking for reconciliation of opposing ideas and dialectical thinking—may not reach his or her full creative potential.
Key References
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its development. Human Development, 34(1), 1–31.
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1992). Buy low and sell high: An investment approach to creativity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(1), 1–5.
Lubart, T. I., & Sternberg, R. J. (1995). An investment approach to creativity: Theory and data. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The creative cognition approach (pp. 269–302). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1995). Defying the crowd: Cultivating creativity in a culture of conformity. New York: Free Press.
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1996). Investing in creativity. American Psychologist, 51(7), 677–688.
Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (1996). How to develop student creativity. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Sternberg, R. J., O’Hara, L. A, & Lubart, T. L. (1997 Fall). Creativity as investment. California Management Review, 40(1), 8–21.
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R. J. (2006). The nature of creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 18 (1), 87–98.
Sternberg, R. J. (2012). The assessment of creativity: An investment-based approach. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 3-12.
Propulsion Theory of Creative Contributions
Creative contributions can be of multiple kinds. I originally proposed, and then further developed, in collaboration with James Kaufman and Jean Pretz, a propulsion theory of creative contributions that seeks to delineate the different ways in which contributions can be creative.
Some kinds of creative contributions move forward in an already existing direction. The most basic kind of creativity is (1) conceptual replication, which is a product that basically repeats what has been done before with slight variation. For example, an artwork originally done in watercolors might essentially be copied in oil paints. A (2) redefinition is a reconceptualization of a creative idea, so that an idea that was originally proposed for one purpose subsequently is used for another purpose. An example, would be aspirin, originally used for analgesia but more recently used to help prevent recurrence of heart attacks. A (3) forward incrementation is the next step in a usually long chain of ideas. It might be the next scientific experiment in a series or the next novel coming out of the last one. Forward incrementations are the ideas that are often preferred by society because they are relatively less threatening to certain stakeholders than are many other kinds of creative contributions. An (4) advance forward incrementation is a next step that is a large leap beyond the last idea. Advance forward incrementations often more too fast or too far for people to grasp or appreciate them, and thus frequently encounter resistance. An example would be the kind of iconic representation in personal computers that was first proposed by Xerox, before people were ready for it, and then proposed by and accepted from Apple in its Macintosh line of computers.
Other kinds of creative contributions take a new direction from previous work. A (5) redirection is a contribution that moves a field in a direction different from that in which it has been moving. Redirections tend to be threatening to stakeholders because they move a field in a direction different from that in which it has been going, and hence risk making other people’s work in the original line irrelevant. They therefore tend to encounter stiff resistance. An example would be the neuroscience revolution, which tends to view in terms of the brain phenomena that previously were viewed in other terms. A (6) regressive redirection is a contribution that takes a field in a new direction, but a direction that has been proposed earlier and perhaps discarded. For example, Thomas Piketty’s recent work on Capital in the 21st Century does, and was intended to bring back memory of the work of Karl Marx’s much earlier work in Das Kapital. A (7) reinitiation is a contribution that not only moves a field in a new direction but also essentially starts a field over. Reinitiations tend to be the most threatening kinds of creative contributions. Chomsky’s work on transformational grammar represented this kind of creative contribution. Finally, a (8) synthesis brings together previously divergent lines of thought, such as the invention of the seaplane.
Key References
Sternberg, R. J. (1999). A propulsion model of types of creative contributions. Review of General Psychology, 3, 83–100.
Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., & Pretz, J. E. (2001) The propulsion model of creative contributions applied to the arts and letters. Journal of Creative Behavior, 35(2), 75–101.
Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., & Pretz, J. E. (2002). The creativity conundrum: A propulsion model of kinds of creative contributions. New York: Psychology Press.
Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., & Pretz, J. E. (2003). A propulsion model of creative leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 14, 455–473.
Sternberg, R. J., Pretz, J. E., & Kaufman. (2003). Types of innovation. In L. Shavinina (Ed.) The international handbook of innovation (pp. 158–169). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Selected publications
Kaufman, S.B., Yaden, D.B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The light vs. dark triad of personality: Contrasting two very different profiles of human nature.Frontiers in Psychology. [pdf]
Kaufman, SB. (2018). Self-Actualizing people in the 21st century: Integration with contemporary theory and research on personality and well-being. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., Weiss, B., Miller, J.D., & Campbell, W.K. (2018). Clinical correlates of vulnerable and grandiose narcissism: A personality perspective. Journal of Personality Disorders, 32, 384. [pdf]
Yaden, D.B., Kaufman, S.B., Hyde, E., Chirico, A., Gaggioli, A., Wei Zhang, J., & Keltner, D. (2018). The development of the Awe Experience Scale (AWE-S): A multifactorial measure for a complex emotion.The Journal of Positive Psychology. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2018). My quest to understand human intelligence. To appear in R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Oleynick, V.C., DeYoung, C.G., Hyde, E., Kaufman, S.B., Beaty, R.E., & Silvia, P.J. (2017). Openness/Intellect: The core of the creative personality. In G.J. Feist, R. Reiter-Palmon, & J.C. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity and Personality Research. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Sun, J., & Kaufman, S.B., & Smillie, L.D. (2017). Unique associations between Big Five personality aspects and multiple dimensions of well-being. Journal of Personality. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., Quilty, L.C., Grazioplene, R.G., Hirsh, J.B., Gray, J.R., Peterson, J.B., & DeYoung, C.G. (2015). Openness to Experience and Intellect differentially predict creative achievement in the arts and sciences.Journal of Personality, 84, 248-258. [pdf]
Beaty, R.E., Benedek, M., Kaufman, S.B., & Silvia, P.J. (2015). Default and executive network coupling supports creative idea production.Nature Scientific Reports. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Duckworth, A.L. (2015). World-class expertise: A developmental model.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., Reynolds, M.R., Liu, X., Kaufman, A.S., & McGrew, K.S. (2012). Are cognitive g and academic achievement g one and the same g? An exploration on the Woodcock-Johnson and Kaufman tests. Intelligence, 40, 123-138. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., DeYoung, C.G., Gray, J.R., Jimenez, L., Brown, J.B., & Mackintosh, N. (2010). Implicit learning as an ability, Cognition, 116, 321-340. [pdf]
Full list of scientific publications
2019
Kaufman, S.B., Yaden, D.B., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019). The Light vs. Dark triad of personality: Contrasting two very different profiles of human nature.Frontiers in Psychology. [pdf]
2018
Kaufman, SB. (2018). Self-Actualizing people in the 21st century: Integration with contemporary theory and research on personality and well-being. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., Weiss, B., Miller, J.D., & Campbell, W.K. (2018). Clinical correlates of vulnerable and grandiose narcissism: A personality perspective. Journal of Personality Disorders, 32, 384. [pdf]
Jauk, E., & Kaufman, S.B. (2018). The higher the score, the darker the core: The nonlinear association between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism.Frontiers in Psychology. [pdf]
Yaden, D.B., Kaufman, S.B., Hyde, E., Chirico, A., Gaggioli, A., Wei Zhang, J., & Keltner, D. (2018). The development of the Awe Experience Scale (AWE-S): A multifactorial measure for a complex emotion.The Journal of Positive Psychology. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2018). My quest to understand human intelligence. To appear in R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Gotlieb, R.J.M., Hyde, E., Immordino-Yang, M.H., & Kaufman, S.B. (2018). Imagination is the seed of creativity. To appear in J.C. Kaufman & R.J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity. New York, NY: Cambridge University press. [pdf]
Sobkow, A., Traczyk, J., Kaufman, S.B., & Nosal, C. (2018). The structure of intuitive abilities and their relationships with intelligence and Openness to Experience. Intelligence, 67, 1-10. [pdf]
2017
Oleynick, V.C., DeYoung, C.G., Hyde, E., Kaufman, S.B., Beaty, R.E., & Silvia, P.J. (2017). Openness/Intellect: The core of the creative personality. In G.J. Feist, R. Reiter-Palmon, & J.C. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity and Personality Research. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Grohman, M.G., Ivcevic, Z., Silvia, P., & Kaufman, S.B. (2017). The role of passion and persistence in creativity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. [pdf]
Sun, J., & Kaufman, S.B., & Smillie, L.D. (2017). Unique associations between Big Five personality aspects and multiple dimensions of well-being. Journal of Personality. [pdf]
Goodman, F.R., Disabato, D.J., Kashdan, T.B., & Kaufman, S.B. (2017). Measuring well-being: A comparison of subjective well-being and PERMA. Journal of Positive Psychology. [pdf]
2016
Gottlieb, R., Hyde, E., Immordino-Yang, M.H., & Kaufman, S.B. (2016). Cultivating the social-emotional imagination in gifted education: insights from educational neuroscience.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. [pdf]
Gotlieb, R., Jahner, E., Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Kaufman, S. B. (2016). How social-emotional imagination facilitates deep learning and creativity in the classroom. In R. A. Beghetto & J. C. Kaufman (Eds.). Nurturing creativity in the classroom (2nd Ed.). New York: Cambridge [pdf]
Seligman, M.E.P., Forgeard, M., & Kaufman, S.B. (2016). Creativity and aging: What we can make with what we have left. In Seligman, M.E.P., Railton, P, Baumeister, R.F., & Sripada, C. (Eds.), Homo Prospectus. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2016). Commentary on Kovacs and Conway, Process Overlap Theory: A Unified Account of the General Factor of Intelligence. Psychological Inquiry, 27, 229-230. [pdf]
Geher, G.G., Kaufman, S.B., Garcia, J.R., Kaufman, J.C., & Dawson, B.B. (2016). The validity and structure of mating intelligence. Evolution, Mind and Behavior, 14, 1-22. [pdf]
2015
Kaufman, S.B., Quilty, L.C., Grazioplene, R.G., Hirsh, J.B., Gray, J.R., Peterson, J.B., & DeYoung, C.G. (2015). Openness to Experience and Intellect differentially predict creative achievement in the arts and sciences.Journal of Personality, 84, 248-258. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Duckworth, A.L. (2015). World-class expertise: A developmental model.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science. [pdf]
Beaty, R.E., Kaufman, S.B., Bender, M., Jung, R.E., Kenett, Y.N., Jauk, E., Neubauer, A.C., & Silvia, P.J. (2015). Personality and complex brain networks: The role of openness to experience in default network efficiency. Human Brain Mapping. [pdf]
Beaty, R.E., Benedek, M., Kaufman, S.B., & Silvia, P.J. (2015). Default and executive network coupling supports creative idea production.Nature Scientific Reports. [pdf]
2014
Kaufman, S.B. (2014). A proposed integration of the expert performance and individual differences approaches to the study of elite performance.Frontiers in Psychology, 5:707. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Paul, E.S. (2014). Creativity and schizophrenia spectrum disorders across the arts and sciences. Frontiers in Psychology, 5:1145. [pdf]
Kozbelt, A., Kaufman, S.B., Walder, D.J., Ospina, L.H., & Kim, J. (2014). The evolutionary genetics of the creativity-psychosis connection. In J.C. Kaufman (Ed.), Creativity and mental illness. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., Kozbelt, A., Silvia, P., Kaufman, J.C., Ramesh, S., & Feist, G.J. (2014). Who finds Bill Gates sexy? Creative mate preferences as a function of cognitive ability, personality, and creative achievement. Journal of Creative Behavior. [pdf]
2013
Kaufman, J.C., Kaufman, S.B., & Plucker, J.A. (2013). Contemporary theories of intelligence. In J. Reisberg (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Psychology (pp. 811-822). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2013). Opening up openness to experience: A four-factor model and relations to creative achievement in the arts and sciences. Journal of Creative Behavior, 47, 233-255. [pdf]
McMillan, R., Kaufman, S.B., & Singer, J.L. (2013). Ode to positive constructive daydreaming. Frontiers in Perception Science, 4:626. [pdf]
Forgeard, M. J. C., Kaufman, S. B., & Kaufman, J. C. (2013). The psychology of creative writing. In G. Harper (Ed.), Blackwell companion to creative writing. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. [pdf]
Eskine, K.J., & Kaufman, S.B. (2013). Grounding creative giftedness in the body. In Kim, K.H., Kaufman, J.C., Baer, J., & Sriraman, B. (Eds.), Creatively gifted students are not like other gifted students: Research, theory, and practice. The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. [pdf]
Jonason, P.K., Kaufman, S.B., & Geher, G. (2013). What lies beneath the Dark Triad Dirty Dozen: Varied relations with the Big Five.Individual Differences Research, 11, 81-90. [pdf]
2012
Kaufman, S.B., Reynolds, M.R., Liu, X., Kaufman, A.S., & McGrew, K.S. (2012). Are cognitive g and academic achievement g one and the same g? An exploration on the Woodcock-Johnson and Kaufman tests. Intelligence, 40, 123-138. [pdf]
Sternberg, R.J., & Kaufman, S.B. (2012). Trends in intelligence research. Intelligence. [pdf]
Beaussart, M.L., Kaufman, S.B., & Kaufman, J.C. (2012). Creative activity, personality, mental illness, and short-term mating success. Journal of Creative Behavior, 46, 151-167. [pdf]
2011
Kaufman, S.B. (2011). Intelligence and the cognitive unconscious. In R.J. Sternberg & S.B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence (pp. 442-467). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Kaufman, J.C., & Kaufman, S.B., & Lichtenberger, E.O. (2011). Finding creativity on intelligence tests via divergent production. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 26, 83-106. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., DeYoung, C.G., Reis, D.L., & Gray, J.R. (2011). General intelligence predicts reasoning ability even for evolutionarily familiar content. Intelligence, 39, 311-322 [pdf]
Peterson, A., Geher, G., & Kaufman, S.B. (2011). Predicting preferences for sex acts: Which traits matter most, and why?Evolutionary Psychology, 9, 371-389. [pdf]
Geher, G., & Kaufman, S.B. (2011). Mating intelligence. In R.J. Sternberg & S.B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Jelte, M.W., & Kaufman, S.B. (2011). An independent analysis of race differences in ratings of attractiveness in the Add Health Study. [pdf]
2010
Prozko, J., & Kaufman, S.B. (2010). Review of The Genius in All of Us: Why Everything You’ve Been Told About Genetics, Talent, and IQ Is Wrong by David Shenk, Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., DeYoung, C.G., Gray, J.R., Jimenez, L., Brown, J.B., & Mackintosh, N. (2010). Implicit learning as an ability, Cognition, 116, 321-340. [pdf]
Brown, J.B., Aczel, B., Jimenez, L., Kaufman, S.B., Mackintosh, N., & Plaisted, K. (2010). Intact implicit learning in autism spectrum conditions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1, 1-24. [pdf]
Pretz, J.E., Totz, K.S., & Kaufman, S.B. (2010). The effects of mood, cognitive style, and cognitive ability on implicit learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 215-219. [pdf]
Gabora, L., & Kaufman, S.B. (2010). Evolutionary approaches to creativity. To appear in R.J. Sternberg & J.C. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
O’Brien, D.T., Geher, G., Gallup, A.C., Garcia, J.R. & Kaufman, S.B. (2010). Self-perceived mating intelligence predicts sexual behavior in college students: Empirical validation of a theoretical construct. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 29, 341-362. [pdf]
2009
Kaufman, S.B. (2009). Faith in intuition is associated with decreased latent inhibition in a sample of high achieving adolescents. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 3, 28-34. [pdf]
Kaufman, J.C., Kaufman, S.B., Beghetto, R.A., Burgess, S.A., & Persson, R.S. (2009). Creative giftedness: beginnings, developments, and future promises. In L. Shavinina (Ed.), International handbook on giftedness. Springer Science. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., DeYoung, C.G., Gray, J.R., Brown, J., & Mackintosh, N. (2009). Associative learning predicts intelligence above and beyond working memory and processing speed. Intelligence, 37, 374-382. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Kaufman, J.C. (2009). Putting the parts together: integrative look at the psychology of creative writing. In S.B. Kaufman & J.C. Kaufman (Eds.), The Psychology of Creative Writing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Kozbelt, A. (2009). The tears of a clown: Understanding comedy writers. In S.B. Kaufman & J.C. Kaufman (Eds.), The Psychology of Creative Writing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [pdf]
2008
Kaufman, S.B. (2008). Commentary: Intuition and creative cognition. Periodicals of implicit cognition, 1, 5-6. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Sternberg, R.J. (2008). Conceptions of giftedness. In S. Pfeiffer (Ed.), Handbook of giftedness in children: Psycho-educational theory, research, and best practices. New York, NY: Plenum. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., Christopher, E.M. & Kaufman, J.C. (2008). The genius portfolio: How do poets earn their creative reputations from multiple products?, Empirical Studies of the Arts, 26, 181-196. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., Kozbelt, A., Bromley, M.L., & Miller, G.F. (2008). The role of creativity and humor in human mate selection. In G. Geher & G. Miller (Eds.), Mating intelligence: Sex, relationships, and the mind’s reproductive system. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. [pdf]
Kozbelt, A. & Kaufman, S.B. (2008). Review of The Psychology of Humor: An Integrative Approach by Rod A. Martin, Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. [pdf]
2007
Kaufman, S.B. (2007). Review of Explaining Creativity: The Science of Human Innovation. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1, 47-48. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2007). Commentary on the deliberate practice view: Investigating the role of domain general mechanisms in the acquisition of domain specific expertise. High Ability Studies, 18, 71-73. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Sternberg, R.J. (2007). Giftedness in the Euro-American culture. In S.N. Phillipson & M. McCann (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness: Socio-cultural perspectives (pp. 377-413). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2007). Sex differences in mental rotation and spatial visualization ability: can they be accounted for by differences in working memory capacity?Intelligence, 35, 211-223. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B., & Kaufman, J.C. (2007). Ten years to expertise, ten more to greatness: An investigation of modern writers, Journal of Creative Behavior, 41, 114-124. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2007). Genius. In C.R. Reynolds & Fletcher-Janzen, E. (Eds). Encyclopedia of Special Education (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. [pdf]
Kaufman, S.B. (2007). Creativity. In C.R. Reynolds & E. Fletcher-Janzen, (Eds). Encyclopedia of Special Education (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. [pdf]
2006
Kaufman, S.B. (2006-2007). Review of Creativity from Constraints: The Psychology of Breakthrough by Patricia D. Stokes. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 26, 273-278. [pdf]
Kaufman (2006). Review of Creativity and Reason in Cognitive Development, edited by James C. Kaufman and John Baer. [pdf]
2004
Kaufman, S.B., & Singer, J.L. (2004). Applying the theory of successful intelligence to psychotherapy training and practice. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 23, 325-355. [pdf]
2001
Kaufman, S.B., Ross, H.J., and Silk, E.M. (2001). A cognitive model of analytical reasoning using GRE problems. Final Project: Cognitive Modeling and Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Carnegie Mellon University. [pdf]